Lesson 16: Reported Speech & "That"-Clauses

Introduction

Today's goal is to separate, cleanly, who is making a claim from what the claim actually is — and how confidently it's being made. This matters across psychology, history, science, business, philosophy, and leadership writing alike, because non-fiction is built almost entirely out of claims, opinions, findings, beliefs, and explanations, each one attached to a source.

Direct Speech vs. Reported Speech

Direct: The researcher said, "Stress affects decision-making." — the researcher's exact words sit inside quotation marks.

Reported: The researcher said that stress affects decision-making. — the author folds the researcher's statement into their own sentence.

This second shape is reported speech.

What Is a "That"-Clause?

that + a claim, acting as a verb's object

Researchers believe that stress affects decision-making.

Main clause: Researchers believe. Then: that stress affects decision-making. This whole stretch is the that-clause — it answers the question researchers believe what?

The Most Important Pattern

Non-fiction is saturated with this shape:

Subject + reporting verb + that + claim

Researchers argue that… · Studies suggest that… · Evidence indicates that… · The author claims that… · Experts believe that… · Scientists have found that… · The report shows that…

Recognising this shape instantly makes an entire paragraph's logical structure far easier to follow.

What Is a Reporting Verb?

A reporting verb names how something was said, thought, or claimed: say, argue, claim, suggest, believe, think, explain, report, indicate, show, demonstrate, conclude, assume, propose, acknowledge, emphasize, predict.

Not every reporting verb commits to the same strength of claim

This distinction is the heart of today's lesson.

"Say" vs. "Argue" vs. "Suggest"

Three verbs, three different commitments

The author says that social environments influence behavior. — simply reporting a statement.

The author argues that social environments influence behavior. — implies the author is defending this position with reasons or evidence, not just stating it.

The author suggests that social environments influence behavior. — a comparatively tentative, less forceful claim.

say → report. argue → position/argument. suggest → possibility/interpretation.

Reading a Claim's Strength

The same underlying idea, three levels of confidence

The evidence shows that the method works. — strong. The evidence suggests that the method works. — comparatively less strong. The evidence may indicate that the method works. — even more cautious.

Academic writers carefully control certainty this way, sentence by sentence.

"That" Is Often Dropped

A missing 'that' doesn't mean there's no noun clause

Researchers believe that the method is effective. Researchers believe the method is effective.

Both are grammatical, and both mean the same thing. When reading, expect to recognise a noun clause even when that isn't visibly there.

"That" Is Not Always a Clause Introducer

Two very different jobs for the same word — callback to Lesson 11

I know that the study is important. — that is a conjunction introducing a noun clause.

The book that I bought is useful. — that is a relative pronoun, describing book.

I know that the study is important. → that-clause, answering I know what? The study that I read was interesting. → relative clause, answering which study?

Noun Clause vs. Relative Clause

Side by side

A: I believe that the study is useful. — that the study is useful is a noun clause, the object of believe. I believe what? → that the study is useful.

B: The study that I read was useful. — that I read is a relative clause, describing study. Which study? → the study that I read.

A Simple Test

Testing whether 'that' introduces a noun clause or a relative clause

1Does everything after "that" form a complete idea on its own? → noun clause (I believe that [the study is useful] — complete on its own.)

2Does "that" itself fill a grammatical role inside the clause? → relative clause (The study that [I read ___] — "that" stands in for "study," the thing being read.)

Reporting Verb + "That"-Clause — Worth Knowing on Sight

researchers argue that · researchers suggest that · studies show that · evidence indicates that · experts believe that · the author claims that · the report states that · scientists have found that · scholars conclude that · critics point out that

Learn each of these as one recognisable reading chunk.

"Studies Show That…"

Separating the source from the claim

Studies show that regular exercise improves cognitive performance.

Studies = subject/source. show = reporting verb. that regular exercise improves cognitive performance = the that-clause. Main claim: regular exercise improves cognitive performance. Source: studies — worth keeping distinct.

"Evidence Indicates That…"

A claim attributed to evidence, not stated outright

Evidence indicates that the problem is more complex than expected.

The author doesn't flatly assert the problem is definitely... — they route the claim through its source:

Source: evidence
   ↓
Reporting verb: indicates
   ↓
Claim: problem is more complex

"The Author Argues That…"

Tracking one source's position against another's

The author argues that technology has changed the way people communicate.

Source: author. Reporting verb: argues. Claim: technology has changed communication.

If the next sentence reads: However, other researchers have suggested that the effect is more limited. — you're now tracking two distinct positions: the author's strong argument, versus other researchers' alternative interpretation.

Reported Speech and Tense

Tense can shift when speech is reported

Direct: He said, "I am tired." Reported: He said that he was tired.

Direct: She said, "I finished the work." Reported: She said that she had finished the work.

This shift is called backshift — but reading it well needs more than mechanical memorisation; context still matters.

Backshift — The Basic Pattern

"I am working." → He said that he was working. "I know the answer." → He said that he knew the answer. "I have finished the study." → He said that he had finished the study. "I will return." → He said that he would return.

But Backshift Doesn't Always Happen

A general truth can keep its present tense even when reported

The researcher said that water boils at 100°C.

Because this is a general truth, the present tense stays. Don't assume "reported speech = always past tense" as a rigid rule — check whether the reported content is a general truth first.

Reporting Verb + "To" + Verb

Another common shape:

He told me to wait. · The researcher asked participants to complete the task. · The manager encouraged employees to communicate openly.

Pattern: reporting verb + object + to + verb

tell someone to do · ask someone to do · encourage someone to do · advise someone to do · remind someone to do · warn someone to do

"Say" vs. "Tell"

A common mistake worth recognising, even if you never make it yourself

❌ He said me… — not correct.

✅ He said that… or He told me that…

say → say + something, or say that… tell → tell + someone + something, or tell + someone + that…

A Reporting-Verb Strength Map

Strength	Verbs
Stronger / more direct	demonstrate · establish · show · confirm
Moderate	indicate · argue · maintain · report
More cautious	suggest · imply · appear to indicate · may indicate
Very cautious	speculate · hypothesize · propose

Context can shift any of these — this is a rough map, not an absolute scale.

Author's Position vs. Someone Else's Position

A single sentence can carry two competing claims

Some researchers argue that social media has improved communication. However, others suggest that it has created new forms of isolation.

Group 1's claim: social media has improved communication. Group 2's claim: social media has created new forms of isolation. However signals the contrast — the author is deliberately placing two positions side by side.

Attribution

Attribution means showing whose idea or claim something is.

Don't blur the author's own claim with someone else's

According to Kahneman, people often rely on mental shortcuts when making decisions.

According to Kahneman = the source. Claim: people often rely on mental shortcuts. Never assume the author's own view and a cited source's view are automatically the same thing.

"According To…"

According to researchers,… · According to the report,… · According to the author,…

Meaning: in X's view / according to X's information. The moment you see this shape, expect the information that follows to be attributed specifically to X.

"It Is Argued That…" — Passive Reporting

A passive structure that can leave the source deliberately vague

Active: Some researchers argue that the policy is ineffective. Passive: It is argued that the policy is ineffective.

Here, who argues? has been left out — the focus stays on the claim itself, not on a specific researcher.

"It Has Been Suggested That…"

Passive + Present Perfect + a that-clause

It has been suggested that stress affects memory.

has been suggested = passive + present perfect. Main claim: stress affects memory. Who suggested it? Not specified — very common in academic writing.

"It Is Widely Believed That…"

Widely believed is not the same thing as proven

It is widely believed that early experiences influence adult behavior.

Structure: It is widely believed (passive + adverb widely) + that early experiences influence adult behavior (that-clause).

Meaning: this is a commonly held belief — but "widely believed" is not itself evidence. This distinction is essential for reading critically.

Reporting Verb + Embedded Question

Not every clause after a reporting verb starts with that.

whether introduces an embedded question, not a settled claim

Researchers examined whether stress affects memory.

whether stress affects memory = an embedded question — the underlying question is does stress affect memory? — not yet answered by this sentence alone.

"Whether" vs. "That"

A settled claim vs. an open question — callback to Lesson 12

Researchers found that stress affects memory. — a claim: stress affects memory.

Researchers investigated whether stress affects memory. — the answer isn't settled yet; this sentence only tells you that the question was investigated.

"What"-Clause

Another kind of embedded question, functioning as a noun clause

Researchers examined what participants remembered.

what participants remembered = the object of examined. Compare: Researchers examined the participants' memories. — a similar idea, expressed differently.

"Why / How / When"-Clause

Researchers investigated why people make certain decisions. · The study examined how people respond to stress. · The researchers recorded when participants changed their decisions.

These are all embedded questions — no question mark, but a question's structure still sits inside the sentence.

Today's Mega Sentence

Two sources, two claims, one contrast

Several researchers have argued that people tend to rely on mental shortcuts when making decisions, while other scholars have suggested that the effects of these shortcuts depend on the context in which decisions are made.

Reporting clause 1: Several researchers have argued. Claim: people tend to rely on mental shortcuts. when making decisions → reduced time clause; full form: when they are making decisions.

Contrast: while signals a contrast between the two positions.

Reporting clause 2: other scholars have suggested. Claim: effects of shortcuts depend on context.

Relative clause: context in which decisions are made — the context in which decisions happen; are made is passive.

How an Author Builds an Argument

A very common non-fiction paragraph shape:

Claim/source → explanation → evidence → contrast → conclusion

1Who is making the claim?

2What are they claiming?

3How confidently are they claiming it?

4What evidence do they offer?

5Is there another position?

6What conclusion does the author draw at the end?

Researchers argue that X. They support this claim with evidence from several studies. However, other researchers suggest that Y. Therefore, the available evidence should be interpreted carefully.

Read this way, every paragraph becomes something to interrogate, not just something to translate.

Vocabulary in Context

establishverb

to show something to be true through solid evidence (প্রতিষ্ঠিত করা)

“The study established a clear link between stress and memory loss.”

confirmverb

to state or show that something is definitely true (নিশ্চিত করা)

“A follow-up study confirmed the original finding.”

maintainverb

to state firmly that something is true, often despite disagreement (দাবি করা/বজায় রাখা)

“The author maintains that the policy is effective, even though critics disagree.”

acknowledgeverb

to accept or admit that something is true (স্বীকার করা)

“The researchers acknowledge that their sample size was small.”

emphasizeverb

to give special importance to something (জোর দেওয়া)

“The report emphasizes that further research is needed.”

speculateverb

to form a theory without firm evidence (অনুমান করা)

“Some scientists speculate that the pattern may be linked to diet.”

Chunks worth learning as whole units

argue that · claim that · suggest that · believe that · assume that · indicate that · show that · demonstrate that · report that · explain that · conclude that · acknowledge that · emphasize that · point out that · according to · it is argued that · it has been suggested that · it is widely believed that · investigate whether · examine how · determine why · consider whether

Guided Reading Practice

Read the paragraph once, slowly, tracking every source and claim.

Researchers have long debated whether technology improves the quality of human communication. Some scholars argue that digital tools make it easier for people to communicate across geographical distances. They point out that individuals can maintain relationships even when they live far apart. Other researchers, however, suggest that frequent digital communication does not necessarily lead to deeper relationships. They argue that the quality of communication depends on how people use these tools rather than on the tools themselves. Recent studies have indicated that both positions may contain some truth, although the effects appear to vary depending on the social context.

1 — whether technology improves… → an open question, not yet settled.

2 — Source: Some scholars. Claim: digital tools make communication easier.

3 — They → some scholars. Reporting verb: point out. Claim: individuals can maintain relationships.

4 — Source: Other researchers. Contrast: however. Claim: frequent digital communication does not necessarily lead to deeper relationships.

5 — how people use these tools → embedded question/noun clause, inside a further claim from the same source.

6 — Source: Recent studies. Reporting verb: have indicated. Claim: both positions may contain some truth. may → hedging, uncertainty.

Golden Rule

Before absorbing any claim in non-fiction, split it into five parts: source, reporting verb, claim, certainty, and claim owner. That habit alone separates a careful reader from someone just decoding words.

Annotating a sentence this way

Researchers argue that people behave differently under stress.

SOURCE: Researchers REPORTING VERB: argue CLAIM: people behave differently under stress CERTAINTY: relatively strong CLAIM OWNER: Researchers

Lesson Summary

Today you learned to separate a claim from its source and to read the reporting verb connecting them as a signal of strength — from demonstrate/show at the strong end to suggest/speculate at the cautious end. You practised telling a that-clause (a noun clause) apart from a relative clause that also uses that, met passive reporting structures that can deliberately omit a source (it is argued that), and learned to recognise embedded questions introduced by whether, what, why, how, and when as a different kind of noun clause altogether.

Practice: Test What You've Learned

Work through every question yourself before checking anything.

Before you start

Do not use Google Translate or any other translation tool for these questions. Confusing the source with the author's own view is a very common mistake — catching yourself doing it is real progress.

Part A — Identify the That-Clause

Researchers believe that social environments influence behavior.
The author argues that people often make decisions emotionally.
Studies suggest that sleep affects memory.

Part B — Reporting Verb Strength

Which verb is the most cautious? (a) demonstrate (b) suggest (c) establish
Which verb is the most argumentative? (a) say (b) argue (c) mention

Part C — Source & Claim

Separate the source from the claim in: Recent studies indicate that regular practice improves reading comprehension.

Part D — Noun Clause or Relative Clause?

Identify each.

I believe that the study is reliable.
The study that I read was reliable.
Researchers investigated whether the method was effective.

Part E — Advanced Reading

Decode this sentence: Although some researchers argue that technology improves communication, others suggest that its effects depend on how people use it. Identify: the contrast connector, source 1, reporting verb 1, claim 1, source 2, reporting verb 2, claim 2, and the embedded clause.

Next: Lesson 17 — Modals, Hedging & Degree of Certainty: may, might, could, must, should, would, likely, probably, possibly, apparently, arguably, tends to, is likely to — a deeper look at how these words signal an author's certainty, possibility, obligation, prediction, and cautious academic claims.