Level 5 — Advanced · Technical & Conceptual Reading
Lesson 64: Advanced Reading of Recommendations, Policies, Rules & Decision-Making
How to read text that tells you what should happen rather than what did happen — separating fact from recommendation from obligation, finding a policy's scope and exceptions, ranking recommendation language by certainty, and tracing a decision passage's options, trade-offs, and qualifications.
Learning Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
- Distinguish a fact from a recommendation, an obligation (must), and a permission (may), reading modal verbs precisely rather than treating them as interchangeable
- Read policy text for its full structure — rule, scope, exception, enforcement — and locate exception markers (unless, except, provided that, subject to) before assuming a rule applies without limit
- Rank recommendation and evidence language on a certainty scale, from 'designed to' and 'aimed at' through 'has been shown to' and 'demonstrates' to 'proves,' recognising that a recommendation is never a guaranteed result
- Reconstruct a decision-making passage's full structure — situation, options, criteria, trade-off, decision — and recognise that a stated 'best' option is only best according to one named criterion
- Read 'however,' 'therefore,' and a conditional 'if' clause as qualifying or limiting a recommendation rather than as simple connectors, and hold a fixed set of questions in mind for any recommendation encountered
Introduction
Lesson 63 gave you a full architecture for reading problem-solution writing. Today's lesson turns to a closely related but distinct kind of text: writing that tells you not what happened, but what should happen, what must happen, what is permitted, and what conditions govern a decision. This is the language of recommendations, policies, rules, and professional decision-making — and it shows up constantly in technology documentation, business writing, port operations, logistics, management, government policy, workplace rules, and technical recommendations.
The core skill this lesson builds is a habit of never reading a modal verb — should, must, may, might, could — as an ordinary word. Each one carries a specific claim about obligation, permission, possibility, or certainty, and confusing them changes what a sentence is actually telling you to do, or not do.
Recommendation Is Not the Same as Fact
The same idea, six different strengths of claim
The system should be monitored regularly tells you what the author thinks ought to happen — a recommendation, not a fact. The system is monitored regularly is a plain statement of what actually happens. Line up the variations and the differences become clear:
| Sentence | Function |
|---|---|
| The system is monitored regularly. | Fact / description |
| The system should be monitored regularly. | Recommendation |
| The system must be monitored regularly. | Requirement / obligation |
| The system may need to be monitored regularly. | Possibility / recommendation |
| The system could be monitored regularly. | Possible option |
| The system is designed to be monitored regularly. | Intended design |
Reading advanced text well means slowing down at exactly this kind of modal verb, every time, rather than skimming past it as filler.
Common Signals of Recommendation
Recommendation strength, grouped from strongest to weakest
A recommendation, unpacked
Managers should review the billing data before approving the invoice. This is not description — it's a recommendation, telling managers what they ought to do, and in what order: review first, then approve.
The Many Meanings of "Should"
'Should' is not always 'ought to' — check which job it's doing
A. Recommendation — Employees should receive additional training means employees ought to receive it. B. Expectation — The package should arrive tomorrow carries no "ought to" at all; it means the package is expected or likely to arrive tomorrow. C. Logical expectation — If the calculation is correct, the total should be 500 means the total is expected to come out at 500, given a correct calculation. Before translating "should" as "উচিত," check whether the sentence is actually recommending an action, predicting an outcome, or drawing a logical expectation from a stated condition.
"Must" Versus "Should"
Two different strengths of claim — and 'must' has a second job besides
Employees must wear protective equipment states a requirement or obligation. Employees should wear protective equipment states a recommendation or advice. In general: must signals a stronger obligation, while should signals a recommendation or expected outcome. But context still matters — the system must be configured correctly is likely a technical requirement, while the system must be experiencing some form of configuration error uses "must" for a strong logical deduction, closer to "almost certainly is," not an instruction to configure anything.
Reading Policy Text
A policy passage's typical structure
Policy text commonly moves through: Problem → Objective → Rule → Scope → Exception → Enforcement → Review.
Example: To reduce billing errors, all invoices must be reviewed before they are issued. However, invoices below a specified threshold may be processed automatically. The policy applies to all billing departments and will be reviewed annually.
Objective: to reduce billing errors. Main rule: all invoices must be reviewed. Exception: invoices below a specified threshold may be processed automatically. Scope: all billing departments. Review: reviewed annually. Reading a policy paragraph well means never stopping at vocabulary comprehension — you still need to answer: What is the rule? Who does it apply to? When does it apply? Are there exceptions? What happens if the rule isn't followed?
Rule Versus Principle
A specific instruction is a different kind of claim from a general standard
A rule states a specific required action: Employees must submit the report by Friday. A principle states a broader idea or standard: Decisions should be based on reliable evidence. A rule typically reads as "do X" or "don't do X"; a principle states that decisions should follow a certain standard or value, without specifying one exact action.
Scope: Who Does the Rule Apply To?
The same rule shape can cover very different populations
Employees working in the billing department must complete the training — scope: employees working in the billing department, not everyone. All employees must complete the training — scope: all employees, without restriction. Employees who handle customer payments must complete the training — scope narrower still. Before accepting that a rule applies to "you" or to "everyone," locate its exact scope phrase.
Finding Exceptions
Common exception signals in policy and rule text
Converting a rule-plus-exception into a mental rule
Employees must submit the form electronically unless the system is unavailable. Main rule: employees must submit the form electronically. Exception: system is unavailable. Convert this into two conditions: normal condition → electronic submission; system unavailable → exception applies. The exception, often just a few words at the end of a sentence, is frequently the most operationally important part of the whole policy.
"Unless"
'Unless X, do Y' means 'if X does not happen, do Y'
Unless the payment is verified, the invoice should not be finalized.
Payment verified?
→ YES → invoice can be finalized
→ NO → don't finalize
"Unless" functions as "if not" — reading it as a simple contrast word instead of a conditional loses its actual logical structure.
"Provided That" and "As Long As"
Two phrases that both introduce a condition attached to permission
The system can operate automatically provided that the required data is available — automatic operation depends on data availability. Employees may work remotely as long as performance requirements are met — remote work is allowed on the condition that performance requirements hold. Both build the same mental structure: condition → permission or outcome.
"Subject To"
A very common piece of formal policy and business language
The proposal was approved subject to further review — the proposal is approved, but conditionally, pending further review. Access is granted subject to security requirements — access is granted, under the condition of security requirements. Pattern: X is allowed / approved / provided subject to Y means X is allowed, but Y's conditions still apply — the approval is real, but not unconditional.
Finding a Recommendation's Reason
A well-built recommendation usually comes with its own justification chain
Structure: Problem → Evidence → Recommendation → Expected benefit. Billing errors have increased significantly over the past year. Because many errors originate from manual data entry, the organization should introduce automated validation checks. This would reduce the number of incorrect invoices. Problem: billing errors increased. Cause: manual data entry. Recommendation: introduce automated validation. Expected benefit: reduce incorrect invoices.
Recommendation Is Not a Guaranteed Result
Four sentences, four very different levels of certainty
The company should introduce automated validation to reduce billing errors. Here, "should introduce" is a recommendation, and "to reduce" names an intended objective — the sentence never claims automated validation will definitely eliminate errors. Compare four related claims directly: the system is designed to reduce errors (intention), the system reduces errors (present, ongoing fact), the system has reduced errors (a completed, evidenced outcome), the system will eliminate errors (a strong future prediction). All four sound similar at a glance — their certainty is not the same at all.
"Designed To" Versus "Proven To": A Certainty Hierarchy
A six-step ladder from stated intention to strong evidence
The system is designed to improve efficiency states the system's purpose — it doesn't prove actual success. The system has been shown to improve efficiency claims real evidence of improvement. The system has consistently improved efficiency is a stronger empirical claim still. Ranked from weakest to strongest: designed to (intended purpose) → aimed at (intended goal) → helps to (a contribution) → has been shown to (evidence-supported) → demonstrates (a stronger evidence claim) → proves (a very strong claim, worth evaluating critically rather than accepting outright).
Reading Decision-Making Text
Situation, options, criteria, evaluation, trade-off, decision
The organization can either replace the existing system or upgrade it. Replacement would provide greater flexibility but would involve substantial implementation costs. Upgrading would be less expensive but would preserve some of the system's existing limitations. Given the current budget constraints, upgrading may therefore be the more practical option.
Situation: existing system needs improvement. Options: replace or upgrade. Criterion: cost, flexibility, and limitations together. Trade-off — replacement: more flexibility, higher cost; upgrade: lower cost, existing limitations remain. Decision: upgrading may be more practical. Notice "may therefore be" — this is not an absolute decision; it's a qualified recommendation.
"Best" Is Rarely Absolute
Ask immediately: best according to which criterion?
This is the best solution for reducing costs names cost reduction as the specific dimension — not "best" in every possible respect. This is the best solution under the current budget constraints names a condition the "best" claim depends on. Whenever "best" appears, ask: best according to what criterion?
Recognising Trade-offs in Decision Text
Connecting back to Lesson 63 — the same trade-off pattern, now inside a decision
Increasing automation may improve speed at the expense of flexibility — speed may rise, flexibility may fall: benefit ↔ cost. The approach offers greater accuracy, but this comes at the cost of higher processing time builds the same structure: accuracy ↑, processing time ↑. A decision passage built around a trade-off is not a simple recommendation — the author is explicitly weighing a gain against a cost, not just proposing one clean improvement.
"Rather Than" for Decision Contrast
Naming the preferred option and the rejected one in a single clause
The organization should improve the existing workflow rather than replace it entirely. Main recommendation: improve the existing workflow. Rejected alternative: replace it entirely. Whenever "rather than" appears in a decision passage, identify both halves explicitly: preferred X rather than Y.
"Instead Of"
A close cousin of 'rather than' — with the same caution attached
Instead of relying entirely on manual verification, the company should introduce automated checks. Preferred: automated checks. Alternative/rejected: entirely manual verification. As with "rather than" in Lesson 63, "instead of X" does not mean X was impossible — it only means Y was chosen over X in this case.
A Recommendation Strength Map
From very strong to weak/optional, in one reference list
Strength can still shift with context
This ladder is a reliable default, not a fixed law — the same word can carry slightly more or less force depending on the surrounding sentence and genre.
Policy, Exception, and Enforcement, Together
A full policy paragraph, decoded
All cargo records must be verified before billing. Records that contain incomplete information should be returned to the relevant department for correction. In exceptional cases, however, billing may proceed if the missing information does not affect the calculation of charges. Any such decision must be documented and reviewed by a supervisor.
Rule: all cargo records must be verified before billing. Problem handling: incomplete information → return for correction. Exception: billing may proceed — but only if the missing information does not affect charge calculation. Additional requirement: the decision must be documented. Oversight: a supervisor reviews it. Compressed: verify → correct incomplete records → exception only if calculation unaffected → document → supervisor review.
"May" in Policy Text: Permission or Possibility?
The single most context-dependent modal verb in policy writing
Employees may work remotely — permission: employees have the right to. Employees may experience delays — possibility, not permission. Compare directly: employees may submit the form online (permission) versus employees may experience delays when submitting the form online (possibility). Always check which job "may" is doing in each specific sentence.
"Can" Versus "May"
Ability/practical possibility versus permission
Employees can submit the form online usually points to ability or practical possibility. Employees may submit the form online usually points to permission. In policy and documentation writing, this distinction is worth holding onto carefully, even though everyday speech often blurs it.
"Need Not" Versus "Must Not"
Two negative modals that are opposites of each other, not synonyms
Employees need not submit the form means submitting it isn't required — "you don't have to." Employees must not submit the form means submitting it is forbidden — "you're not allowed to." These are opposite claims dressed in similar-looking sentences, and mixing them up inverts the actual rule.
Reading "If" Inside a Recommendation
A recommendation attached to a condition is not an unconditional recommendation
If the existing system can be upgraded at a reasonable cost, the organization should consider upgrading it rather than replacing it. This recommendation is not unconditional. Structure: IF condition → THEN recommendation. Condition: upgrade possible at reasonable cost. Recommendation: consider upgrading. Alternative: replacement. Summarising this as "the organization should upgrade the system" drops the condition and overstates the claim; the accurate version keeps it: the organization should consider upgrading the system if upgrading is reasonably affordable.
"It Is Recommended That…"
A formal, passive recommendation structure common in technical writing
It is recommended that all users enable multi-factor authentication means all users are recommended to enable MFA. It is strongly recommended that backups be tested regularly uses a formal subjunctive structure — "backups be tested," not "backups are tested." The pattern — it is recommended / essential / important that + subject + base verb — appears constantly in technical and professional English: it is essential that the system remain available; it is important that users follow the procedure.
Seven Hidden Questions Behind Every Recommendation
Ask these of any recommendation you encounter
A Full Professional Recommendation Passage, Traced
Problem, recommendation, qualification, risk, refined recommendation, and conditions, in sequence
Because manual verification has become increasingly time-consuming, the organization should consider automating routine checks. However, automation should not be introduced without first evaluating the quality of the underlying data. Where data quality is poor, automated processes may simply reproduce existing errors at a larger scale. A phased implementation may therefore be preferable, beginning with low-risk processes and expanding gradually as reliability improves.
Problem: manual verification is time-consuming. Recommendation: consider automation. Qualification: don't automate without first checking data quality. Risk: poor data → automated reproduction of errors, at larger scale. Refined recommendation: use phased implementation. Condition: start with low-risk processes. Expansion condition: expand as reliability improves.
"However" as Qualification, Not Just Contrast
Connecting back to Lesson 51's argument-chain reading
In the passage above, however, automation should not be introduced without first evaluating… is not a simple contrast. It's a qualification of the recommendation that came before it: first claim — automation is desirable; then — but there is a prerequisite. Structure: Recommendation → Limitation → Refined recommendation. Reading "however" here as a plain contrast connector, rather than as the pivot that reshapes the whole recommendation, loses the paragraph's actual argument.
"Therefore," "Thus," and "Hence"
A conclusion signal is not proof the conclusion actually follows — connecting back to Lessons 31 and 33
Data quality is poor. Therefore, full automation may be inappropriate. Structure: evidence/problem → therefore → conclusion. But "therefore" does not automatically make a conclusion logically valid — the critical-reading question from earlier lessons still applies here: does the evidence actually support this conclusion, or is the author asserting a stronger link than the evidence justifies?
Three Master Frameworks: Recommendation, Policy, Decision
For a recommendation passage
For a policy passage
For a decision passage
The Ultimate Signal-Word Skill
A dense cluster of signal words means the author has shifted modes
When a passage clusters words like should, must, may, might, could, recommended, advisable, necessary, essential, unless, provided that, subject to, except, otherwise, rather than, at the expense of, therefore, or however, the author is very likely no longer just reporting information. They may be recommending, creating a rule, granting permission, imposing a restriction, stating a condition, carving out an exception, comparing options, showing a trade-off, justifying a decision, or qualifying their own earlier recommendation. Noticing this shift in mode — from description to prescription — is often the difference between reading a passage accurately and missing its actual instruction entirely.
Vocabulary in Context
obligationnounformal
a requirement to act in a certain way, typically signalled by 'must' or 'need to' (বাধ্যবাধকতা)
Often with legal obligation, meet an obligation, obligation to
“Under the contract, the carrier has an obligation to notify the consignee within twenty-four hours.”
permissionnounneutral
authorization to do something, one of the two common meanings of 'may' alongside possibility (অনুমতি)
Often with give permission, require permission, written permission
“Visitors need written permission from the security office before entering the yard.”
policy scopenoun phraseformal
the specific population or set of situations a rule or policy is stated to apply to (নীতির পরিধি)
Often with define the policy scope, policy scope of, outside the policy scope
“The policy scope covers all contractors working on port premises, not just employees.”
exception clausenoun phraseformal
the part of a rule or policy that states when the main rule does not apply (ব্যতিক্রম ধারা)
Often with an exception clause, include an exception clause, invoke the exception clause
“An exception clause in the tender waives the deadline in cases of force majeure.”
qualificationnounformal
a limitation or condition added to a claim or recommendation that narrows how strongly or widely it applies (শর্তাধীনতা)
Often with important qualification, add a qualification, with one qualification
“The recommendation carries one qualification: it applies only to terminals handling over a million containers.”
evidentiary strengthnoun phraseformal
how strongly a piece of language is backed by proof, ranging from a stated intention to a demonstrated result (প্রমাণের শক্তি)
Often with greater evidentiary strength, evidentiary strength of, weak evidentiary strength
“'Is designed to reduce errors' has less evidentiary strength than 'has reduced errors by a third'.”
phased implementationnoun phraseformal
introducing a change gradually, in stages, rather than all at once (পর্যায়ক্রমিক বাস্তবায়ন)
Often with a phased implementation, plan a phased implementation, phased implementation of
“The authority opted for phased implementation, starting with export lanes before extending to imports.”
subjunctive constructionnoun phrasetechnical
a formal grammatical pattern using the base verb form after phrases like 'it is recommended that,' rather than the usual present-tense form (সাবজাংটিভ গঠন)
Often with use the subjunctive construction, formal subjunctive construction, subjunctive construction after
“'The committee recommends that the manager be replaced' uses a subjunctive construction after 'recommends that'.”
Guided Reading Practice
Read this passage once, straight through. Then identify its rule, its scope, its exception, its modal verbs' exact function, and whether its final sentence is a recommendation or a qualified one, before checking your reading against the notes that follow.
All customs declarations must be submitted electronically at least 24 hours before a vessel's arrival. Declarations submitted after this deadline may still be accepted, provided that the delay does not affect berth scheduling. Agents who repeatedly submit declarations late should be referred to the compliance team for review. This requirement applies to all commercial vessels except those under a designated humanitarian or emergency exemption. Given the operational disruption late declarations can cause, agents are strongly advised to submit well before the deadline rather than relying on the grace period.
Rule: declarations must be submitted electronically at least 24 hours before arrival. Scope: all commercial vessels. Exception: designated humanitarian or emergency exemption. Conditional exception within the rule: late declarations "may still be accepted" — permission, not possibility — but only "provided that" berth scheduling is unaffected. Escalation clause: repeat late submitters "should be referred" — recommendation, addressed to whoever manages compliance referral, not an instruction to the agents themselves. Final sentence: "strongly advised... rather than" is itself a recommendation, contrasting the preferred behaviour (submit early) against a rejected reliance (the grace period) — not a restatement of the rule, but an added layer of guidance on top of it.
Golden Rule
Golden Rule
Don't read "should," "must," "may," and "could" as ordinary verbs — read them as signals of obligation, permission, possibility, recommendation, or expectation, and for any recommendation ask what is recommended, why, under what conditions, compared with what alternative, with what trade-off, and with how much certainty.
Lesson Summary
This lesson turned your attention to text that prescribes rather than describes. You practised separating fact from recommendation from obligation from permission, tracking the many jobs "should," "must," "may," and "could" can each do depending on context. You learned to read policy text for its full structure — rule, scope, exception, enforcement — and to treat exception markers like "unless," "provided that," and "subject to" as carrying real operational weight, often more than the main rule itself. You ranked recommendation and evidence language on a certainty scale from "designed to" up through "proven to," and worked through full decision-making passages — situation, options, criteria, trade-off, decision — learning to treat a stated "best" option as best only along one named dimension. And you practised reading "however," "therefore," and conditional "if" clauses as tools that qualify and limit a recommendation, not as simple connective filler.
Why modal verbs deserve this much attention
A recommendation, a rule, and a fact can look almost identical on the page — the entire difference often rests on a single modal verb. Reading advanced professional and technical English accurately means never letting "should," "must," and "may" blur together; each one is making a distinct, specific claim about what is required, permitted, possible, or merely expected.
Practice: Test What You've Learned
Work through every question yourself before checking anything.
Before you start
For every sentence below, name the exact function of its modal verb or signal phrase (fact, recommendation, obligation, permission, possibility, or expectation) explicitly — "this sounds like advice" is not yet a complete answer.
Part A — Fact, Recommendation, Obligation, and Permission
- Drivers must log their rest hours after every shift. State the function of "must" here, and contrast it with how "should" would change the sentence's meaning.
Show answer
"Must" states an obligation — a requirement that is not optional. Replacing it with "should" would soften the sentence into a recommendation, something drivers ought to do but are not strictly required to do. - Supervisors may approve overtime requests up to four hours. Explain whether "may" here signals permission or possibility, and how you know.
Show answer
"May" here signals permission, not possibility, because the sentence grants supervisors the authority to approve overtime up to a stated limit. The context describes an authorized action with a defined boundary, not an uncertain future event. - The shipment should clear customs by Thursday. Explain which of this lesson's three meanings of "should" applies here.
Show answer
This uses the expectation meaning of "should" — it predicts that the shipment is likely to clear customs by Thursday, not that clearing customs by Thursday is something anyone ought to do.
Part B — Policy Structure, Scope, and Exceptions
- Contractors working on-site must complete a safety briefing before starting work. Identify this rule's exact scope.
Show answer
The scope is contractors who work on-site specifically, not all contractors in general and not employees, so a contractor working remotely would fall outside this rule. - Refunds will be processed within five business days unless the item shows signs of damage. Identify the main rule and the exception, and restate both as a mental IF/THEN rule.
Show answer
Main rule: refunds are processed within five business days. Exception: the item shows signs of damage. As an IF/THEN rule: if the item shows no damage, process the refund within five business days; if the item shows damage, the standard timeline no longer applies. - The extended warranty applies to all purchases made online, provided that the product is registered within 30 days. Identify the condition attached to this policy's scope.
Show answer
The condition is that the product must be registered within 30 days of purchase. Without that registration, the extended warranty does not apply, even though the purchase itself was made online.
Part C — Certainty and Evidence Language
- The new packaging is designed to reduce shipping damage. Explain why this sentence does not yet prove shipping damage has actually decreased.
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"Designed to reduce" states the packaging's intended purpose, not a measured outcome. The sentence tells us what the packaging was built to accomplish, not whether shipping damage has actually gone down. - Independent testing has shown that the new packaging reduces shipping damage by 20%. Rank this claim against the previous question's sentence on this lesson's certainty hierarchy.
Show answer
This sentence sits much higher on the certainty hierarchy than "designed to reduce," since "has been shown to" is an evidence-supported claim backed by independent testing and a specific measured figure, rather than a bare statement of intended purpose. - The revised onboarding process should improve new-hire retention. State what kind of claim this is, and what would need to be true for it to become a stronger, evidence-based claim.
Show answer
This is a recommendation-flavored expectation, predicting an outcome rather than reporting one. For it to become a stronger, evidence-based claim, the passage would need actual data showing retention improved after the revised process was implemented, such as a before-and-after comparison against a stated baseline.
Part D — Decisions and Trade-offs
- The team could either hire a specialist contractor or train an existing employee. Identify the two options, and propose one plausible criterion the author might use to evaluate them.
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The two options are hiring a specialist contractor and training an existing employee. A plausible criterion is cost versus speed: a contractor may be faster to bring in but more expensive, while training an employee may be slower but cheaper in the long run. - Outsourcing production would reduce costs but would also reduce quality control. Identify the trade-off explicitly, naming both sides.
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The trade-off is between cost and quality control: outsourcing lowers costs but weakens quality control, so the benefit on one dimension is gained only by sacrificing something on the other. - This is the fastest deployment method. Explain why "fastest" still leaves other evaluation dimensions unaddressed, the way "best" does in this lesson.
Show answer
"Fastest" only evaluates speed; it says nothing about cost, reliability, risk, or ease of implementation. A method that wins on speed could still lose badly on those other dimensions, exactly the way "best" needs its criterion named before it means anything specific.
Part E — Full Passage Analysis
Return to this lesson's guided reading passage about customs declarations.
- State the passage's main rule and its scope in your own words.
Show answer
The main rule is that customs declarations must be submitted electronically at least 24 hours before a vessel's arrival. The scope is all commercial vessels, except those covered by a designated humanitarian or emergency exemption. - Identify every exception or conditional clause in the passage, and explain exactly what each one modifies.
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"Provided that the delay does not affect berth scheduling" modifies the permission to accept late declarations, limiting exactly when that permission holds. "Except those under a designated humanitarian or emergency exemption" modifies the rule's scope, carving certain vessels out of the 24-hour requirement entirely. - Explain the difference in function between "may still be accepted" and "should be referred to the compliance team."
Show answer
"May still be accepted" grants conditional permission — late declarations can be allowed, but only if berth scheduling is unaffected. "Should be referred" is a recommendation directed at whoever manages compliance, instructing them to send repeat offenders for review, rather than granting or restricting any permission to the agents themselves. - Explain why the passage's final sentence is a recommendation layered on top of the rule, rather than a restatement of the rule itself.
Show answer
The final sentence does not restate the 24-hour requirement. It adds new guidance urging agents to submit even earlier than required and explicitly rejects relying on the grace period, which is a distinct piece of advice built on top of the existing rule, not a repetition of it.
Next: Lesson 65 — Advanced Reading of Evaluation, Criteria, Rankings & "Better/Worse" Judgments: how to treat every "better," "effective," and "preferable" as an incomplete claim until its criterion, evidence, and conditions are found.